The Soviet Union
About the Soviet Union
The Soviet Union, officially called the Union of Soviet Socialists Republic, stretched from the Baltic and Black Seas to the Pacific Ocean and included - in its final days - 15 countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. At the time, the capital was Moscow, which is now the capital city of Russia. It is the third largest empire to ever exist, and possibly the most diverse with over 100 distinctive nationalities, the majority of which were East Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, and Belorussians).
The country was founded on the idea of Marxism, developed by Karl Marx, a "philosophy" that expressed the idea of an underlying economic basis to society. This structure included the labor and means of production, as well as the political arrangements that regulate production. In addition, he talked of the problems resulting from political relations individuals establish because of material production as well as legal relations, referring to the class system predominant in most societies.
However, Vladimir Lenin, a preeminent figure during the founding of the Soviet Union, made several contributions to Marx’s doctrine, corrupting the original ideals. In the Communist Manifesto, communists were described as “the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others.” Lenin understood this to mean that communism was the idyllic method of instituting change, the primary goal of Marxism. He believed that it was the Communist Party’s duty to end capitalism and establish socialism in its place through any means necessary.
The Leninist concept insisted upon the need for a proletarian dictatorship, an authoritarian aspect intended to come from the people, but later practiced by the leaders of the Communist Party, and democratic centralism, in which a small group of elected professional revolutionaries would lead the country. Neither Lenin nor Marx would have been pleased to see how their philosophies had been practiced.
The country was founded on the idea of Marxism, developed by Karl Marx, a "philosophy" that expressed the idea of an underlying economic basis to society. This structure included the labor and means of production, as well as the political arrangements that regulate production. In addition, he talked of the problems resulting from political relations individuals establish because of material production as well as legal relations, referring to the class system predominant in most societies.
However, Vladimir Lenin, a preeminent figure during the founding of the Soviet Union, made several contributions to Marx’s doctrine, corrupting the original ideals. In the Communist Manifesto, communists were described as “the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country, that section which pushes forward all others.” Lenin understood this to mean that communism was the idyllic method of instituting change, the primary goal of Marxism. He believed that it was the Communist Party’s duty to end capitalism and establish socialism in its place through any means necessary.
The Leninist concept insisted upon the need for a proletarian dictatorship, an authoritarian aspect intended to come from the people, but later practiced by the leaders of the Communist Party, and democratic centralism, in which a small group of elected professional revolutionaries would lead the country. Neither Lenin nor Marx would have been pleased to see how their philosophies had been practiced.
The Rise
The Soviet Union came into power after the fall of the last czars, the Romanovs. The czarist regime contained the seeds of future totalitarianism; the czar's word was law, having absolute authority, but his power became limited with the introduction of private property to society. The regime finally came to an end in 1917 after Russia had been experiencing a famine for several years and the economy failed; to appease his citizens, the last czar, Nicholas II, issued the October Manifesto, promising the country a parliamentary legislature and, later, a constitution in 1905. However, he was accused of treason by electing worthless nominees to the legislature and betraying military secrets to the Germans in World War I; riots broke out and the people demanded that he abdicate.
He complied and the Russian Provisional Government was installed directly afterward, but it was overthrown within a few short months, resulting in the second part of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the first being the overthrow of the czarist regimen, which placed the Bolsheviks in power. The Bolsheviks (name meaning One of the Minority), a faction of the Russian Social Democratic Works Party, were organized in 1903 and led by Vladimir Lenin. They gained considerable support from the hungry people with their slogan "peace, land, and bread". In 1917, they broke from the RSDWP, called the Menshevik wing, and seized control of the government in October of that year during a nearly bloodless coup d'etat after uniting with other socialist leaders and renaming themselves the All-Russian Communist Party. The name was again changed to All-Union Communist Party in 1925 after the founding of the U.S.S.R. and then to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1952.
He complied and the Russian Provisional Government was installed directly afterward, but it was overthrown within a few short months, resulting in the second part of the Russian Revolution of 1917, the first being the overthrow of the czarist regimen, which placed the Bolsheviks in power. The Bolsheviks (name meaning One of the Minority), a faction of the Russian Social Democratic Works Party, were organized in 1903 and led by Vladimir Lenin. They gained considerable support from the hungry people with their slogan "peace, land, and bread". In 1917, they broke from the RSDWP, called the Menshevik wing, and seized control of the government in October of that year during a nearly bloodless coup d'etat after uniting with other socialist leaders and renaming themselves the All-Russian Communist Party. The name was again changed to All-Union Communist Party in 1925 after the founding of the U.S.S.R. and then to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1952.
The Reign: World War II & Stalin
After Lenin's death in 1922, Joseph Stalin rose to take his place, but not without adversary. Stalin had been the commissar of nationalities and state control since 1917 and 1919 respectively, but it was his position as secretary general of the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party, appointed to by Lenin himself, that provided him the power to become dictator. Without it, Leon Trotsky would have become head of the Soviet government and followed in Lenin's footsteps and the Soviet Union might have turned out very differently. During Lenin's final years, he was severely debilitated and Stalin ignored his wishes; as a result, Lenin wrote a political testament calling for his removal of office, a testament that never came to light due to Stalin's meddling. Ultimately, Stalin proved himself to be a man of action, rather than a man of theory, as Trotsky was, a trait that was appealing to the party and to the people.
When Lenin died, the economy was in ruins, with about 14 million premature deaths since 1914: 2 million in World War I, the rest from famine, disease, and civil war. Also, about 2 million people emigrated. In response, Stalin launched his first five-year plan, setting an example that Mao Zedong would try to follow in China 40 years later in 1968. All of the nation’s resources were poured into the development of industries and millions of peasants were forced to give up their land and work in them rather than in agriculture, as they had been doing for centuries. The second five-year-plan continued the objectives of the first, but the collectivization resulted in a famine, costing the lives of million of Ukrainians. The third emphasized the production of weaponry in preparation for World War Two; the fourth and final plan again focused on military buildup, angering the Western Powers.
In 1936, Stalin began what later was called the Great Purge. It was a series of campaigns designed to purge the Soviet Union of Stalin's enemies, real and imaginary. It involved several years of close police surveillance of citizens, soldiers, and government officials; anyone suspected of treason would be subject to imprisonment or execution, proven guilty or not. Many unaffiliated persons were forced to admit to crimes they did not commit. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed due to Stalin's paranoia.
In August 1939, Stalin allied with Hitler and encouraged the attack on Poland, marking the beginning of World War Two. While Germany was occupied with the Allied Powers, Stalin annexed eastern Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Romania. In May of 1941, Stalin acknowledged the growing threat of a German invasion of the Soviet union by his treacherous ally and appointed himself to a new position as head of the government: Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. However, it didn't stop the unprovoked German blitzkrieg on June 22, 1941 that delved deep into Soviet territory. In order to stop the ongoing invasion, Stalin appointed himself Commander in Chief. Under Stalin's direction, the battle for Moscow and the Battles of Stalingrad and Kursk were won, turning the tide against the Germans and causing them to surrender in May of 1945.
Unfortunately for Germany, the unsuccessful attempt to take over the Soviet Union lost them their possibly most important ally as it caused the USSR to join the Allied Powers in 1942. However, it was a wary alliance due to communist versus capitalist rift -- a rift that only grew when the Allied Powers refused to send troops to the Western Front where Soviet territories were being decimated by the German army. Another cause for resentment came when the US began secretly developing a nuclear bomb and refused to share the technology with the Soviet Union. The Soviet victory was hard-won, with close to 20 million deaths.
After the end of World War Two, Yugoslavia defected, prompting Stalin to crackdown again on possible rebel leaders, Marxism was harshly reasserted, and Russian supremacy averred . Stalin now regarded the US as his enemy following the death of Hitler. In January 1953, Stalin ordered the arrest of certain Jewish doctors, charged with the murders of several Soviet leaders during the war, as well as some senior officials. Before he could launch another massive party purge, he died on March 5 of a stroke. Due to its convenience, many suggested foul play.
When Lenin died, the economy was in ruins, with about 14 million premature deaths since 1914: 2 million in World War I, the rest from famine, disease, and civil war. Also, about 2 million people emigrated. In response, Stalin launched his first five-year plan, setting an example that Mao Zedong would try to follow in China 40 years later in 1968. All of the nation’s resources were poured into the development of industries and millions of peasants were forced to give up their land and work in them rather than in agriculture, as they had been doing for centuries. The second five-year-plan continued the objectives of the first, but the collectivization resulted in a famine, costing the lives of million of Ukrainians. The third emphasized the production of weaponry in preparation for World War Two; the fourth and final plan again focused on military buildup, angering the Western Powers.
In 1936, Stalin began what later was called the Great Purge. It was a series of campaigns designed to purge the Soviet Union of Stalin's enemies, real and imaginary. It involved several years of close police surveillance of citizens, soldiers, and government officials; anyone suspected of treason would be subject to imprisonment or execution, proven guilty or not. Many unaffiliated persons were forced to admit to crimes they did not commit. Hundreds of thousands of people were killed due to Stalin's paranoia.
In August 1939, Stalin allied with Hitler and encouraged the attack on Poland, marking the beginning of World War Two. While Germany was occupied with the Allied Powers, Stalin annexed eastern Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and parts of Romania. In May of 1941, Stalin acknowledged the growing threat of a German invasion of the Soviet union by his treacherous ally and appointed himself to a new position as head of the government: Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars. However, it didn't stop the unprovoked German blitzkrieg on June 22, 1941 that delved deep into Soviet territory. In order to stop the ongoing invasion, Stalin appointed himself Commander in Chief. Under Stalin's direction, the battle for Moscow and the Battles of Stalingrad and Kursk were won, turning the tide against the Germans and causing them to surrender in May of 1945.
Unfortunately for Germany, the unsuccessful attempt to take over the Soviet Union lost them their possibly most important ally as it caused the USSR to join the Allied Powers in 1942. However, it was a wary alliance due to communist versus capitalist rift -- a rift that only grew when the Allied Powers refused to send troops to the Western Front where Soviet territories were being decimated by the German army. Another cause for resentment came when the US began secretly developing a nuclear bomb and refused to share the technology with the Soviet Union. The Soviet victory was hard-won, with close to 20 million deaths.
After the end of World War Two, Yugoslavia defected, prompting Stalin to crackdown again on possible rebel leaders, Marxism was harshly reasserted, and Russian supremacy averred . Stalin now regarded the US as his enemy following the death of Hitler. In January 1953, Stalin ordered the arrest of certain Jewish doctors, charged with the murders of several Soviet leaders during the war, as well as some senior officials. Before he could launch another massive party purge, he died on March 5 of a stroke. Due to its convenience, many suggested foul play.
The Reign: 1953-1991
Stalin's successor, Nikita Khrushchev, began his time in office by giving a speech criticizing the late Soviet dictator's "intolerance, his brutality, and his abuse of power," and apologizing to Yugoslavia's leader, Josip Tito, for Stalin's denunciation of Yugoslav communism, acquiescing that there are different versions of communism. While Khrushchev was vocal about his hatred of capitalism, he didn't strike as imposing a figure as his predecessors due to his good humor and "de-Stalinization" of the Soviet Union. However, his backseat approach to leadership came with its drawbacks for the Soviet Union. Both Poland and Hungary rebelled against their communist leaderships in 1956. Poland gained a considerable amount of freedom under a new government - still communist - but the Hungarian revolution was crushed due to its wishes to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. In addition, the publishing of several anti-communist books - the likes of which would have never seen the light of day during Stalin's time - resulted in the dissent of the general population which later could not be contained.
Khrushchev attempt to "humanize" the Soviet system without sacrificing its goals, called "Reform Communism", provided a better relationship with the capitalist countries of the west up until the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962; the Soviet leader had tried to secretly base medium-range missiles in the island country, but the plan was detected by the United States, leading to a tense confrontation. In order to avoid a nuclear war, the Khrushchev agreed to moved the missiles as long as the US didn't try to overthrow Cuba's communist government, a decision that was strongly criticized by the Chinese government, who wanted to wage war against the "imperialists". Between the humiliating disaster of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the weakening bonds with China, and a failed attempt to turn the Siberian steppe into acres of agricultural produce, the Communist Party lost much prestige in the Soviet Union. On October 14, 1964, after a palace coup organized by Leonid Brezhnev, he retired from office.
Brezhnev was a military man and left the internal economic affairs as well as communications with non-communist states to his colleagues, preferring foreign and military affairs during his time as the Soviet leader. He developed the Brezhnev doctrine, giving the Soviet Union the right to intervene if there was an uprising against communism in another state in order to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. In addition, he order the build-up of military defenses and aerospace industries until both were equal with that of the US, the aerospace program possibly more so. In 1979, Brezhnev reached an agreement with President Jimmy Carter on the restriction of nuclear weapons, but the US Senate refused to ratify it; in response, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in an endeavor to prop up a failing communist government there.
Khrushchev was remembered for the military-industrial base that flourished under his control, as well as for impoverishing the rest of the Soviet economy. During his time in office, living standards went down, religious persecution increased, and corruption in the government spread. The next two leaders, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, accomplished little, however, due to their declining health when they were elected to office.
Khrushchev attempt to "humanize" the Soviet system without sacrificing its goals, called "Reform Communism", provided a better relationship with the capitalist countries of the west up until the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962; the Soviet leader had tried to secretly base medium-range missiles in the island country, but the plan was detected by the United States, leading to a tense confrontation. In order to avoid a nuclear war, the Khrushchev agreed to moved the missiles as long as the US didn't try to overthrow Cuba's communist government, a decision that was strongly criticized by the Chinese government, who wanted to wage war against the "imperialists". Between the humiliating disaster of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the weakening bonds with China, and a failed attempt to turn the Siberian steppe into acres of agricultural produce, the Communist Party lost much prestige in the Soviet Union. On October 14, 1964, after a palace coup organized by Leonid Brezhnev, he retired from office.
Brezhnev was a military man and left the internal economic affairs as well as communications with non-communist states to his colleagues, preferring foreign and military affairs during his time as the Soviet leader. He developed the Brezhnev doctrine, giving the Soviet Union the right to intervene if there was an uprising against communism in another state in order to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. In addition, he order the build-up of military defenses and aerospace industries until both were equal with that of the US, the aerospace program possibly more so. In 1979, Brezhnev reached an agreement with President Jimmy Carter on the restriction of nuclear weapons, but the US Senate refused to ratify it; in response, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in an endeavor to prop up a failing communist government there.
Khrushchev was remembered for the military-industrial base that flourished under his control, as well as for impoverishing the rest of the Soviet economy. During his time in office, living standards went down, religious persecution increased, and corruption in the government spread. The next two leaders, Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko, accomplished little, however, due to their declining health when they were elected to office.
The Fall
The final leader of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, elected March 11, 1985, made efforts to revive the country's economy using methods that would make his predecessors roll over in their graves. Not only was technological modernization and increased efficiency within the Soviet Bureaucracy called for, but freedoms of expression and information were greatly expanded and the first efforts to democratize the Soviet political system were made. There were multiple candidates in some elections for government posts and the force of supply and demand began affecting the products the Soviet Union produced.
In 1987, he made an agreement with President Ronald Regan to destroy all intermediate-range nuclear missiles and withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The following year, Gorbachev had changes made to the constitution, restructuring the governments legislate and executive branches, releasing them from the control of the Communist Party. A new bicameral parliament was implemented, some of whose members were directly elected by the people in multiplicandidated elections. The U.S.S.R. Congress of People’s Deputies had actual legislative power, unlike its predecessor. In 1989, Gorbachev was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet and retained his presidency.
However, what Mikhail Gorbachev did not account for when he granted the country freedom of speech was the amount of pent-up anger at the government that had been stored away since the very beginning of the communistic government, which proved to be very powerful when unleashed. The disintegration began towards the western edge of the Soviet Union, in the Baltic region: Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Uzbekistan, then Lithuania and Latvia. As a result, a constitutional procedure was devised that would provide a way to lawfully secede from the Soviet Union. In 1990, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his peaceful political achievements.
Later that year, while the Communist Party was still losing strength due to the clamor for a democratic government, Gorbachev abolished the party's monopoly of political power and accelerated the transfer of power to elected political officials and parties. True representative democracy was making an appearance for the first time in centuries. In a last-ditch effort to hold on to power, "hard-line" communists staged a coup d'etat and kidnapped Gorbachev and his family, and announced on state television on August 19, 1991, that he was ill and unfit to lead the country. The people rebelled and massive protest took place in many major cities. When the coup organizers brought in the military to quell the protestors, the soldiers refused to fire on their fellow countrymen. After three day, the coup organizers surrendered.
On Christmas Day, 1991, Gorbachev too surrendered, realizing that the country - or, rather, what was left of it - wouldn't accept anything other than absolute democracy, quitting the Communist Party and disbanding the Central Committee as he did so. By January of 1992, the Soviet Union completely dissolved. Each country became its own, united only through the Commonwealth of Independent Republics, an organization made up of the states of the former Soviet Union. The new nations had to develop their own economies, political systems, and define borders, an overwhelming task for some countries that still suffer from border disputes and economic hardship.
In 1987, he made an agreement with President Ronald Regan to destroy all intermediate-range nuclear missiles and withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan. The following year, Gorbachev had changes made to the constitution, restructuring the governments legislate and executive branches, releasing them from the control of the Communist Party. A new bicameral parliament was implemented, some of whose members were directly elected by the people in multiplicandidated elections. The U.S.S.R. Congress of People’s Deputies had actual legislative power, unlike its predecessor. In 1989, Gorbachev was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet and retained his presidency.
However, what Mikhail Gorbachev did not account for when he granted the country freedom of speech was the amount of pent-up anger at the government that had been stored away since the very beginning of the communistic government, which proved to be very powerful when unleashed. The disintegration began towards the western edge of the Soviet Union, in the Baltic region: Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Uzbekistan, then Lithuania and Latvia. As a result, a constitutional procedure was devised that would provide a way to lawfully secede from the Soviet Union. In 1990, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his peaceful political achievements.
Later that year, while the Communist Party was still losing strength due to the clamor for a democratic government, Gorbachev abolished the party's monopoly of political power and accelerated the transfer of power to elected political officials and parties. True representative democracy was making an appearance for the first time in centuries. In a last-ditch effort to hold on to power, "hard-line" communists staged a coup d'etat and kidnapped Gorbachev and his family, and announced on state television on August 19, 1991, that he was ill and unfit to lead the country. The people rebelled and massive protest took place in many major cities. When the coup organizers brought in the military to quell the protestors, the soldiers refused to fire on their fellow countrymen. After three day, the coup organizers surrendered.
On Christmas Day, 1991, Gorbachev too surrendered, realizing that the country - or, rather, what was left of it - wouldn't accept anything other than absolute democracy, quitting the Communist Party and disbanding the Central Committee as he did so. By January of 1992, the Soviet Union completely dissolved. Each country became its own, united only through the Commonwealth of Independent Republics, an organization made up of the states of the former Soviet Union. The new nations had to develop their own economies, political systems, and define borders, an overwhelming task for some countries that still suffer from border disputes and economic hardship.